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A。 At the core of the ethical treatment of both humans and animals is the question of whether the
potential gains from the proposed research outweigh the expected or potential costs。 Colleges have
established review boards to help researchers make this decision； and the American Psychological
Association （APA） has established guidelines to ensure that research is conducted ethically。 For
humans； these guidelines include the following：
B。 Informed Consent
1。 Whenever possible； participants must be informed about the nature of the
experiment in which they may participate and； after being informed； must
consent to participate。 They are also informed that their consent is conditional
and that they can withdraw it at any time without penalty。
C。 Risk / Gain Assessment
1。 Not only do researchers have a responsibility to weigh potential risks of an
experiment against its potential benefits； they also have a responsibility to do
everything in their power to minimize risk to participants； whether they are
human or nonhuman； and to optimize the possible benefits to the participants
and to society
D。 Intentional Deception： APA guidelines make it clear that intentional deception is justified only if：
1。 The study has sufficient scientific and educational importance to warrant
deception
2。 There is no equally effective alternative to deception
3。 Participants are not deceived concerning aspects of the experiment that would
affect their willingness to participate
4。 The deception； and the reasons for it； is fully explained to the participants at
the conclusion of the research
E。 Debriefing
1。 At the conclusion of participation in an experiment； each participant must be
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
told the rationale for the experiment。 This debriefing gives the participant an
opportunity to learn about psychology and themselves； and allows them to
appreciate more fully their experience in the experiment。
F。 Issues in Animal Research： Science； Ethics； Politics
1。 The benefits of animal research include： development and assessment of drugs
that treat anxiety； mental illness； and Parkinson’s disease； knowledge about
drug addition and neuromuscular disorders； and possible treatments and
cures for AIDS。 Animal research not only benefits humans； but has led to many
important vaccines for animals as well。
2。 Despite these acplishments； some believe that it is immoral and
inappropriate to use animals in research。
a） Animals cannot be informed about the nature of the experiment and
thus cannot give their informed consent； as the APA requires with
humans。
b） Because of the sensitive nature of the debate and the fact that animals
cannot give informed consent； reasoned proponents of animal rights
create a moral context in which individual researchers must judge
their research under the highest level of passion and scrutiny
c） Just as it has for human participants； the APA has set strict guidelines
for the treatment of nonhuman participants。 These guidelines state
that：
（i） Facilities for nonhuman participants must be adequate in
size； be well maintained； and have qualified staff
（ii） The health of the animals and their general well…being must
be monitored
（iii） Every effort must be made to minimize pain and disfort
for the animals
（iv） Alternative； less stressful procedures； such as puter
modeling； must be used whenever possible
V。Being a Wiser Research Consumer
A。 One goal of Psychology and Life； 16th Edition is to help your students bee more critical
thinkers。 Critical thinking goes beyond the information given and delves beneath slick appearances；
with the goal of understanding substance without being seduced by style。 Some general rules to keep
in mind to be a more critical thinker include：
1。 Avoid the assumption that correlation equals causation。 It does not。
2。 Be sure that critical terms and concepts are operationally defined so that you
can be sure of their meaning
3。 Before seeking confirming evidence for a theory； look for disconfirming
evidence。 Confirming evidence is easy to find when you are looking for it。
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
4。 Always seek alternative explanations that explain results more simply or
pletely； especially when researchers have a stake in the proposed
explanation。 Occam’s Razor is a rule of thumb that proposes that
parsimonious； simple explanations are preferable to plex ones。
5。 Be alert for signs that personal biases may have distorted the research process
and findings
6。 Be suspicious of simple answers to plex problems
7。 When confronted with claims that something is more effective； better； or
superior； be sure that you understand to what it is being pared
8。 Maintain an open mind and a healthy skepticism。 All conclusions are subject
to revision； and some truly novel； bizarre ideas will be correct。
9。 Challenge authority that is unjust； values opinion over evidence； and is not
open to constructive criticism
10。 Of course； all of these suggestions should be applied to your reading of
Psychology and Life！
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology？ What are the limitations of
the scientific method； and are there any better alternatives available？ Students are often skeptical of
the scientific method and are eager to point out its flaws； such as the slow incremental progress it
generates； its reliance on measurable phenomena； its susceptibility to experimenter biases； and its
sterile methodology。 Students often fail to realize； however； that； although it may be flawed； the
scientific method is the best tool we have to generate valid； reliable knowledge and that it has
provided us with a wealth of discoveries。
2。 What psychological principles have bee part of the larger culture； have penetrated our thinking
and language？ Psychological principles permeate advertising； marketing； television； movies； sales；
self…help books； fashion； politics； and folk wisdom； to name a few； but students are often unaware of
this influence。 Pointing out this influence is a good way to keep your students’ interest。 For
example； the concept of “psychological stress；” so prevalent in our cultural landscape； was rarely
mentioned 50 years ago。
3。 Ask your students how many of them believe in determinism。 Then ask them many of them believe
in free will。 Insist that they cannot have it both ways。 You will be surprised to find that many； if not
most； students believe in free will。 This is a terrific discussion starter； because it conflicts with one
of the fundamental assumptions of science and psychology–determinism。 You might ask your
students what science can hope to reveal if the world is not determined。 You might also suggest
that what feels like free will to us may be thinly disguised determinism。 This simple discussion is
often enough to change the manner in which students view themselves and the manner in which
they view those around them。
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
The Ethics of Animal Research
The