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亚当·斯密遗漏了什么
经济学家希勒：以亚当？斯密为鼻祖的自由市场推崇者认为，人的经济行为是理性的。而凯恩斯洞察到，人在很多时候受“动物精神”驱使，因此政府仍有应当扮演的角色。
作者：MacroMarkets联合创办人兼首席经济学家罗伯特？希勒（Robert Shiller）为英国《金融时报》撰稿 2009…03…11
A failure to control the animal spirits
希勒：再谈凯恩斯的“动物精神”By Robert ShillerPublished： March 8 2009商业训练营 》 金融英语速读 》
Lydia Lopokova； wife of the economist John Maynard Keynes； was a famous ballerina。 She was also a Russian émigré。 Thus Keynes knew from the experience of his in…laws the horrors of living in the worst of socialist economies。 But he also knew first…hand the great difficulties that e from unregulated； unfettered capitalism。 He lived through the British depression of the 1920s and 1930s。 Thus Keynes was inspired to find a middle way for modern economies。We are seeing； in this financial crisis； a rebirth of Keynesian economics。 We are talking again of his 1936 book The General Theory of Employment； Interest and Money； which was written during the Great Depression。 This era； like the present； saw many calls to end capitalism as we know it。 The 1930s have been called the heyday of munism in western countries。 Keynes’s middle way would avoid the unemployment and the panics and manias of capitalism。 But it would also avoid the economic and political controls of munism。 The General Theory became the most important economics book of the 20th century because of its sensible balanced message。In times of high unemployment； creditworthy governments should expand demand by deficit spending。 Then； in times of low unemployment； governments should pay down the resultant debt。 With that seemingly minor change in procedures； a capitalist system can be stable。 There is no need for radical surgery on capitalism。Adherents to Keynes’s message were so eager to get this simple policy implemented； on both sides of the Atlantic； that they failed to notice – or perhaps they intentionally disregarded – that the General Theory also had a deeper； more fundamental message about how capitalism worked； if only briefly spelled out。 It explained why capitalist economies； left to their own devices； without the balancing of governments； were essentially unstable。 And it explained why； for capitalist economies to work well； the government should serve as a counterbalance。The key to this insight was the role Keynes gave to people’s psychological motivations。 These are usually ignored by macroeconomists。 Keynes called them animal spirits； and he thought they were especially important in determining people’s willingness to take risks。 Businessmen’s calculations； he said； were precarious： “Our basis of knowledge for estimating the yield 10 years hence of a railway； a copper mine； a textile factory； the goodwill of a patent medicine； an Atlantic liner； a building in the City of London amounts to little and sometimes to nothing。” Despite this； people somehow make decisions and act。 This “can only be taken as a result of animal spirits”。 There is “a spontaneous urge to action”。There are times when people are especially adventuresome – indeed； too much so。 Their adventures are supported in these times by a blithe faith in the future； and trust in economic institutions。 These are the upswing of the business cycle。 But then the animal spirits also veer in the other direction； and then people are too wary。George Akerlof and I； in our book Animal Spirits （Princeton 2009）； expand on Keynes’s concept and tie it in to modern literature on behavioural economics and psychology。 Much more clarity about the psychological underpinnings of animal spirits is possible today。For example； social psychologists； notably Roger Schank and Robert Abelson； have shown how much stories and storytelling； especially human…interest stories； motivate much of human behaviour。 These stories can count for much more than abstract calculation。 People’s economic moods are largely based on the stories that people tell themselves and tell each other that are related to the economy。We have seen these stories e and go in rapid succession in recent years。 We first had the dot bubble and the envy…producing stories of young millionaires。 It burst in 2000； but was soon replaced with another bubble； involving smart “flippers” of properties。This mania was the product not only of a story about people but also a story about how the economy worked。 It was part of a story that all investments in securitised mortgages were safe because those smart people were buying them。 Those enviable people who are buying these assets must be checking on them； therefore we do not need to。 We need only run alongside them。What allowed this mania and these stories to persist as long as they did？ To a remarkable extent we have got into the current economic and financial crisis because of a wrong economic theory – an economic theory that itself denied the role of the animal spirits in getting us into manias and panics。According to the standard “classical” theory； which goes back to Adam Smith with his Wealth of Nations in 1776； the economy is essentially stable。 If people rationally pursue their own economic interests in free markets they will exhaust all mutually beneficial opportunities to produce goods and exchange with one another。 Such exhaustion of opportunities for mutually beneficial trade results in full employment。 By this theory it could not be otherwise。Of course； some workers will be unemployed。 But they will be unable to find work only because they are in a temporary search for a job or because they insist on pay that is unreasonably high。 Such unemployment is viewed as voluntary； and evokes no sympathy。Classical theory also tells us that financial markets will also be stable。 People will only make trades that they consider to benefit themselves。 When entering financial markets – buying stocks or bonds or taking out a mortgage or even very plex securities – they will do due diligence in seeing that what they are buying is worth what they or paying； or what they are selling。What this theory neglects is that there are times when people are too trusting。 And it also fails to take into account that if it can do so profitably； capitalism will produce not only what people really want； but also what they think they want。 It can produce the medicine people want to cure their ills。 That is what people really want。 But if it can do so profitably； it will also produce what people mistakenly want。It will produce snake oil。 Not only that： it may also produce the want for the snake oil itself。 That is a downside to capitalism。 Standard economic theory failed to take into account that buyers and sellers of assets might not be taking due diligence； and the marketplace was not selling them insurance against risk in the plex securities that they were buying； but was； instead； selling them the financial equivalent of snake oil。There is a broader moral to all this – about the nature of capitalism。 On the one hand； we want to take advantage of the wisdom of Adam Smith。 For the most part； the products produced by capitalism are what we really wan